Summarize the structure of dna. include information about the nitrogenous bases, sugars, and composition of the backbone. which nitrogenous bases pair up together in dna? rna? explain where covalent and hydrogen bonds are located. also, fully explain the process of the central dogma (dna, rna, proteins) in correlation of protein synthesis (dna transcription and translation).

DNA backbone is made up of deoxyribose monomer sugars as the basic unit that are covalently connected in chains. Each deoxyribose sugar is a five (5)-carbon ring. The  5’ carbon covalently bonds with a phosphate while the 3’ carbon bonds to the next deoxyribose carbon ring. The 1’ carbon is covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base (either Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, or Guanine ).

In DNA, Cytosine pairs with Guanine, and Adenine pairs with Thymine. In RNA, the same principle applies only that RNA has no Adenine base but Uracil. Therefore, Thymine pairs with Uracil while, similar to in DNA, Cytosine pairs with Guanine.

Covalent bonds occur in virtually all the bonds except between nitrogenous base pairs of opposite strands of DNA.

The central Dogma stipulates that DNA --à RNA--àProtein. During transcription, information on DNA is copied to messenger- RNA.  In eukaryotes messenger- RNA moves to the cytoplasm where it is then translated to protein by ribosomes.  In prokaryotes, since there is no nucleus, the mRNA is translated even as transcription continues.

you must remain stopped until the stop signal is retracted and the red lights are turned off. approaching traffic in the opposite roadway of a divided highway shall not be required to stop, even if the school bus has the stop-arm extended and the alternately flashing warning signal lamps on.

"menstrual cycle is a complex cycle that consists of several processes. order of occurrence of steps in menstrual cycle are as follows:

1. high progesterone levels maintain the endometrium lining of the uterus.

2. endometrium lining breaks down and low levels of estrogen stimulate the pituitary to release fsh and lh.

3. fsh and lh stimulates the follicles to develop and the oocyte to produce estrogen.

4. rising estrogen levels suppress fsh production and development of other follicles.

5. a spike in lh causes follicle to rupture.

6. a breakdown of corpus luteum causes progesterone level to drop."