P. americanus produces a small antifreeze protein (afp) that binds to ice crystals as they form. the structure of afp has polar groups on one side and nonpolar groups on the other. propose a hypothesis to explain how afp prevents cells from freezing solid.
a) afp binds to ice crystals and forms a nonpolar shell that prevents covalent bonding between water molecules to form a larger crystal. by limiting crystal growth, the cell would not freeze solid.
b) afp binds to ice crystals and forms a nonpolar shell that prevents covalent bonding between ice crystals to form a larger crystal. by limiting crystal growth, the cell would not freeze solid.
c) afp can denature in cold water with the discharge of heat, so it melts ice crystals preventing them from becoming larger. by limiting crystal growth, the cell would not freeze solid.
d) afp binds to ice crystals and forms a nonpolar shell that prevents hydrogen bonding between water molecules to form a larger crystal. by limiting crystal growth, the cell would not freeze solid.