Located near the bottom of an insulated cylinder is a rigid plate of negligible mass. Between the rigid plate and the bottom of the cylinder is 0.4 kg (ma) of air at 250 kPa (Pa1) and 300 K (Ta1). Between the rigid plate and a semi-constrained piston 0.5 kg (mw) exists superheated water vapor at 300 Celsius (Tw1) and 100 kPa (Pw1). Consider these to be the initial conditions (state 1) of this multi-component system, before any energy conducts between the two substances. The system boundary includes the air, the water and the rigid plate. The rigid plate is conductive allowing heat to pass between the air and water vapor, but the piston is well insulated. The water vapor is manually compressed until the volume of water vapor (Vw2) is halved and the pressure is 200 kPa (Pw2), at which point the air and water vapor are in temperature equilibrium. Determine the following:
a. The final temperature of the water vapor, T2, in Celsius (no subscripted needed here...)
b. The final pressure of the air, Pa2, in kPa
c. The change in entropy of the air, Sa2-Sa1, in kJ/K
d. The change in entropy of the water, Sw2-Sw1, in kJ/K
e. The change in entropy of the combined system, S2-S1, in kJ/K, neglecting the mass of the rigid plate
f. The entropy produced, σ, of the combined system during the process

Infrared sensor is most used sensor in wireless technology where remote controlling functions and detection of surrounding objects/ obstacles are involved. this post will discuss about what is infrared sensor, its working principle, how it works, types, applications, advantages and disadvantages. what is infrared sensor

ir sensor is a simple electronic device which emits and detects ir radiation in order to find out certain objects/obstacles in its range. some of its features are heat and motion sensing.

ir sensors use infrared radiation of wavelength between 0.75 to 1000µm which falls between visible and microwave regions of electromagnetic spectrum. ir region is not visible to human eyes. infrared spectrum is categorized into three regions based on its wavelength i.e. near infrared, mid infrared, far infrared.

wavelength regions of infrared spectrum

near ir – 0.75µm to 3 µm
mid ir – 3 µm to 6 µm
far ir – > 6 µm
1 introduction to infrared sensor

fig. 1 – introduction to infrared sensor

working principle of infrared sensor

infrared sensors works on three fundamental physics laws:

planck’s radiation law: any object whose temperature is not equal to absolute zero (0 kelvin) emits radiation.
stephan boltzmann law: the total energy emitted at all wavelengths by a black body is related to the absolute temperature.
wein’s displacement law: objects of different temperature emit spectra that peak at different wavelengths that is inversely proportional to temperature.
key elements of infrared detection system

the key elements of infrared detection system are:

ir transmitter

ir transmitter acts as source for ir radiation. according to plank’s radiation law, every object is a source of ir radiation at temp t above 0 kelvin. in most cases black body radiators, tungsten lamps, silicon carbide, infrared lasers, leds of infrared wavelength are used as sources.

transmission medium

as the name suggests, transmission medium provides passage for the radiation to reach from ir transmitter to ir receiver. vacuum, atmosphere and optical fibers are used as medium.

ir receiver

generally ir receivers are photo diode and photo transistors. they are capable of detecting infrared radiation. hence ir receiver is also called as ir detector. variety of receivers are available based on wavelength, voltage and package.

ir transmitter and receivers are selected with matching parameters. some of deciding specifications of receivers are photosensitivity or responsivity, noise equivalent power and detectivity.