Define these terms in your own words bessemer process louis pasteur adam smith karl marx capitalism nation-state popular sovereignty congress of vienna otto von bismarck pogrom serfs

Bessemer process: was the first chemical fabrication process used for mass production of good quality steel from molten pig iron.

Louis Pasteur: was a French chemist of the 19th century, who played an important role in the development of hygiene technologies and for the prevention of infectious diseases. He is responsible for the invention of pasteurization, vaccines, sterilization, antibiotics, among many others.

Adam Smith: was a Scottish economist and teacher of Moral Philosophy of the 18th century. He is famous for writing "The Wealth of Nations," an economic treatise that was fundamental for the development of classic capitalist economy. He is known as the father of modern economy.

Karl Marx: was a German sociologist, philosopher, and economist of the 19th century, whose work had a strong influence in the political history of the 20th century. He is famous for writing with Engels "Das Kapital" and "The Communist Manifesto," where he exposes his political and economic ideas about how capitalism works, the eventual end of this economic system, and how it would be replaced by a communist society.

Capitalism: an economic system based on the exploitation of private property over the capital as a mean of production. The capital, which is the set of resources and goods used for production, is linked to relations of investment and profit with mercantile purpose. The goods and services produced are exchanged in a market, and its prices vary depending on the relation between offer and demand.

Nation-state: it is a modern political entity that consists of a set of government institutions that rule and manage over a given population, who inhabits a delimited territory. This set of government institutions are sovereign over that territory, which means there is no other political power above it. The population it rules is linked by cultural, linguistic, and symbolic bonds, usually referred to as Nation.

Popular sovereignty: is a modern concept that emphasizes that the power and authority of the government emerge from the people and for the people. In a modern Republic, the real sovereign is not a king or an aristocracy, but the entire people who express its collective will.

Congress of Vienna: it was a Congress that took place in 1815 in Vienna, where the kings and emperors of Europe met in order to organize and reestablish their authority in Europe after the fall of Napoleon.

Otto von Bismarck: was a Prussian politician and state-man, who unified Germany in the 19th century and had a key role in the European international relations of the 19th century.

Pogrom: it is a term used to refer to a massive, spontaneous or premeditated, lynching of an ethnic or religious minority and destruction of their properties. Originally, it referred to the lynchings of Jews in the Russian Empire.

Serfs: they were people who were linked to a feudal lord by a contract of serfdom during the Middle Ages. Usually, they were peasants who worked the feudal lands.