Other than sickness and death, what impacts do pandemics & epidemics have on populations?

In many cases these cause mass migrations, as well as changes in social behavior.

Explanation:

We can see now that this pandemic caused many people to move from big problem areas such as new york to more spread areas that weren't as effected such as Connecticut, Maine, Vermont ect. And it caused many people to enter a depressed state and even make some people violent looking to pin the blame on something (asian hate)

the graph shows the spread of railways in the 1800s.

based on the graph, the conclusion that can be drawn about germany is answer d)   by 1880, germany had more rail lines than great britain and russia.