…the opium war of 1839–42 was short and
one-sided, due to the superiority of european
weapons, which came as a complete surprise
to the chinese. in the first skirmish alone, in july
1839, two british warships defeated twenty-nine
chinese ships. on land, the chinese and their
medieval weapons were no match for british
troops armed with state-of-the-art muskets. by
the middle of 1842 british troops had seized
hong kong, taken control of the key river deltas,
and occupied shanghai and several other cities.
the chinese were forced to sign a peace treaty
that granted hong kong to the british, opened
five ports for the free trade of all goods, and
required the payment of reparations to the british
in silver, including compensation for the opium
that had been destroyed by commissioner lin.…
— tom standage
which term best characterizes the events
described in this passage?
(1) industrialization (3) containment
(2) imperialism (4) cultural diffusion

by creating a labor shortage that pushed the continent toward a market economy

from the religious point of view, the conflicts began because of the enmity between catholic and protestants. in 1649, at the insistence of baltimore, the colonial assembly approved the act of religious tolerance, the first law in the colonies granting freedom of worship, though only for christians. in 1654, however, with the protestants of maryland in the majority, the act was revoked. the almost civil war broke out and order was not restored until 1658, when lord baltimore was returned to power.

on the issue of class conflict, the chesapeake region offered few economic opportunities to contract employees who had served their term of obligation. even with the small amount of capital needed to grow tobacco, former hired servants at best became subsistence farmers, a mature class for those called to rebellion, such as those proposed by nathaniel bacon. as the number of new hired workers declined because of limited chances of progress and reports of severe treatment, they were replaced by african slaves.

from the racial point of view, after 1660, the chesapeake colonies imposed laws that defined slavery as a lifelong and hereditary condition based on race. this made slaves profitable because planters could rely not only on their work but also on their children. the slave population, which numbered four thousand in virginia and maryland in 1675, grew significantly by the end of the century.