Which of the following best describes a P value? Group of answer choices a. A measure of the process of drawing conclusions about an entire population based on information in a sample. b. A measure of external validity c. The probability that an effect as large, or larger, than that observed in a particular study could have occurred by chance alone given that there is truly no relationship between the exposure and diseases.

Aresearch study is studying the effects of a new drug for osteoporosis alzheimer's disease (ad) for women above the age of 65 years. a group of individuals with osteoporosis is randomized into two groups. one group is treated conventionally, and the second group is treated with the new medication. assessments are made at 3, 6, 12, 36, and 48 months. the conventionally treated group is assessed for ad using a serum blood test, and the treatment group is assessed for ad using a pet radiotracer that binds to beta-amyloid plaques. in comparing these 2 trial arms, the authors of the study may encounter which type of bias? a. selection bias on the risk of developing b. measurement bias c. confounding bias d. recall bias e. lead-time bias