A p-value is the a. probability, when the null hypothesis is true, of obtaining a sample result that is at least as unlikely as what is observed b. value of the test statistic c. probability of a Type II error d. probability corresponding to the critical value(s) in a hypothesis test

a. probability, when the null hypothesis is true, of obtaining a sample result that is at least as unlikely as what is observed

Step-by-step explanation:

In Statistics, a p-value also known as the probability value is the probability, when the null hypothesis is true, of obtaining a sample result that is at least as unlikely as what is observed.

The p-values can be calculated by using spreadsheets, statistical software and p-value tables and is widely used in research fields such as economics, physics, sociology, accounting etc.

The p-value can be mathematically expressed as a function of the null hypothesis, H and the random variable, X.