Recent data show that states that spend an above average amount of money X per pupil in high school tend to have below average mean Verbal SAT scores Y of all students taking the SAT in the state. In other words, there is a negative association between X and Y. This is particularly true in states that have a large percentage of all high school students taking the exam. Such states also tend to have larger populations. The most plausible explanation for this association is:.
A) X causes Y. Overspending generally leads to extra, unnecessary programs, diverting attention from basic subjects. Inadequate training in these basic subjects generally leads to lower SAT scores.
B) Y causes X. Low SAT scores creates concerns about the quality of education. This inevitably leads to additional spending to help solve the problem.
C) Changes in X and Y are due to changes in other lurking variables. If a higher percentage of students take the exam, the average score will be lower. Also, states with larger populations have large urban areas where the cost of living is higher and more money is needed for expenses.
D) The association between X and Y is purely coincidental. It is implausible to believe the observed association could be anything other than accidental.