If construed in the sense they were intended, and carried out, inculcate that the constitution of the united states is founded on compact—that this compact derives its obligation from the agreement, entered into by the people of each of the states, in their political capacity, with the people of the other states—that the constitution which is the offspring of this compact, has its sanction in the ratification of the people of the several states, acting in the capacity of separate communities—that the majority of the people of the united states, in the aggregate, have no power to alter the constitution of the general government, but that change, or amendment can only be proposed in the mode pointed out in the constitution, and can never become obligatory unless ratified by the people of three fourths of the states through their respective legislatures or state conventions. that in the case of a violation of the constitution of the united states, and the usurpation of powers not granted by it on the part of the functionaries of the general government, the state governments have the right to interpose and arrest the evil, upon the principles which were set forth in the virginia resolutions of 1798, against the alien and sedition laws — and finally, that in

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clearcutting reproduces a new even-aged stand by completely removing the mature stand.

clearcutting as a silvicultural treatment has several characteristics:

it causes a sudden environmental change

it removes the seed source from the regeneration area

the configuration of the clearcut may affect seed dispersal

it begins a new rotation

it will eliminate some pests that require forest cover

overall, it temporarily removes the forest cover, transforming the forest community and environment.

clearcutting followed by artificial (seeded or planted) regeneration has several advantages:

we can avoid delay in restocking the site

we can introduce a selected species, seed source, and genotype

we can control arrangement and spacing

we can achieve uniformity in the new stand

we can overcome the problems associated with securing sufficient natural regeneration.

the shelterwood method involves the removal of most of the mature stand at the end of the rotation, but a portion of the mature stand is left standing.   the shelterwood method serves three basic purposes:

to prepare the stand for production of abundant seed

to modify the environment in a way that promotes germination and survival of the selected species

to build up the amount and size of advance regeneration to ensure the prompt restocking of the new stand following overstory removal.

the shelterwood method involves a sequence of 3 cuttings:

preparatory cuttings: make the seed trees more vigorous and set the stage for regeneration. see our thinning page for more information.

establishment/seed cuttings: open up enough vacant growing space to allow establishment of the new regeneration.

removal cuttings: uncover the new crop to allow it to fill the growing space.

the residual trees in the shelterwood must:

be sturdy and windfirm

be able to survive exposure

flower and reproduce seed

be the best trees of the mature stand

keep in mind that the shelter trees must not occupy the entire site.   a void must be created in order to make room for the new regeneration. the amount of shelter to leave will depend on the following factors:

species characteristics (seeding and shelter requirements)

the number of cuttings in the cutting sequence (1, 2, or 3)

landowner objectives

the size of the area to be regenerated

the final removal harvest level required to be profitable

the shelter must be removed before it impedes the growth of the new stand or threatens its survival.