Some observers at a lynching do not participate but do not attempt to stop the lynching. which of the following theories of crowd behavior best explains this? a. contagion theory b. emergent norm theory c. crowd decision theory d. convergence theory

I would say C most people go along with what the rest of the people do, if observers didn’t do anything it’s more likely because no one else was.

Ibelieve b) recall election

An informal structure in a bureaucracy would be something like so-called "office politics". where there's a formal structure set up for the organization, but then an informal subculture as well that has a way of organizing the bureaucracy further. this can be positive because it sets up an added degree of organization, albeit informal, within the bureaucracy.